Rjft Organizational Management Task 2

Organizational Management RJFT2 Task 2 A1. The Utah Symphony was recognized as a Group II orchestra. Group I and Group II are distinguished by the endowment amount and level of annual expenditures. For the year of 2001-2002, the average endowment for Group I orchestras was around $76 million and $8. 8 million for Group II orchestras. The Utah Symphony came in just shy of $12. 2 million in 2000-2001 and was projected to be upwards of $13. 7 million for 2001-2002. That being said, the Utah Symphony was considered to be at the top end of Group II symphony orchestras in the United States (Ager & Delong, 2005).However, even with these strengths within the symphony, prior to the proposed merger of the two organizations, the Utah Symphony’s financial state was declining. There were several factors due to the weak financial state. The musicians were part of a union, which negotiated a contract requiring high salaries, benefits and annual pay increases, which would cause the organizati ons expenses to increase. So, while revenue was projected to increase, this was offset by the increase in expenses. The cash balance was $116,308 in fiscal year 2000-2001 and projected at $2,042 for the following year, yet another financial weakness.In order to ensure a successful start of the merger, Anne would need to would need to come up with a plan. She could start by addressing the musician’s salaries. By referring to the board, as well as union leaders, Anne can learn about the requests specifications of the last negotiation. When presenting a new contract, she can influence the musicians to either take a lower wage or not to take a pay increase by showing them the income statement and explaining that the life of the organization is dependent on cutting costs and increasing revenue.Through this, she can show how the organization will not be able to operate at a surplus if expenses continue to increase, offsetting the revenue earned. Eliminating pay raises could be pres ented as a temporary fix, or worst case scenario (assuming the organization would survive on its own without the merger and the musicians would be able to keep their jobs), wages could be decreased. Through this approach, she can show them that the success of the symphony and them keeping their jobs are dependent upon each other, but changes need to be made. In response to the increasing expenses offsetting he revenues, Anne could research their fundraising opportunities to determine what it is they do well and what could be improved. She can use fundraising ideas that work for her current organization as well as from the past. As there are financial strengths and weaknesses of the Utah Symphony, that applies to leadership as well. The organizations greatest strength in leadership is with Lockhart. Lockhart is known as one of the top rated conductors and his relationship with the musicians is very healthy. They look to him to support the group when decisions are being made.While thi s is strong, the board also appreciates and respects the leader, not wanting to compromise the relationship they have with him. Strength about this group is that Scott Parker, chairman of the board, realizes the difficulties the group is facing and cares enough to do something about it. While the symphony has great leaders, there are also some weaknesses involved. It’s possible that Lockhart’s focus is geared too much on the musicians and not enough on the survival of the organization. Parker is scheduled to move to New York and will be replaced by Peterson mid-merger.This could cause some confusion or instability due to lack of initial involvement on Peterson’s part. Another weakness is that there is no CEO. This organization needs a well defined leader to succeed. Anne will obviously have some leadership obstacles to overcome to ensure the successful start of the merger. Anne will need to convince Lockhart that while it is important to have the relationships h e has with the musicians, it is important that this does not block his vision of the overall organization. He is a leader of the group and should focus on the well being of the organization.She can do this by showing Lockhart that the two (musicians and organization) are dependent upon each other, without musicians, there would be no symphony; likewise, without no symphony, there would be no jobs for the musicians. Also, with Parker moving to New York during the middle of the merger, Peterson will have some catching up to do. Anne should meet with Peterson periodically if possible before he joins the team full-time. She should also provide him updates as the process continues via face to face meetings, emails, phone calls, etc. Once he is full time, the merger should be his primary focus.Anne should also introduce him to Bill Bailey so that he can gather input from someone at the same level. In addition to that, Ewers should request ongoing open communication with Parker as a refere nce to help ensure the start of the merger is secure. A2. Unlike the financial and leadership status of the symphony, the opera appears to be in a much healthier state. Financially, the total revenue and contributions totaling approximately $5 million far outweighs expenses, leaving a surplus of $582,409 in fiscal year 2000-2001 and is projected to continue the same trend in the following year.Not only do they have a solid surplus, the opera is also financially stable in terms of assets. The large costume inventory and 2. 9 acres of land accumulate to roughly $4. 8 million in assets. Due to the strong financial state, no weaknesses were identified. In order to maintain the organization’s current financial state, Anne should be proactive and continue to coordinate fundraising, and seek funding through other areas. If the merger were to take place, the amount of performances would increase, boosting attendance and sales as well as overall revenue. Just as the financial state of the opera is healthy, the leadership is as well.Anne has brought with her many accomplishments throughout her past experiences. While holding the general director position of Boston Lyric Opera, she was able to retire a $450,000 debt that was passed on to her from her predecessor. While there, she also built an endowment fund as well as increasing the number of productions from one to three. Anne also held the role of assistant director of both the San Francisco Opera and Canadian Opera Company. Within the USA and internationally, she has had the opportunity to act as stage director for more than 60 opera productions.During her 11 year tenure at UOC, she grew the organization’s annual budget from $1. 5 million to $5 million. Anne has a record of being successful at fundraising and is admired by both the opera and symphony boards. With this strong leadership, Anne will have lots of insight on how to address situations that come her way, based on her previous experience. The o ne weakness that is displayed is the resignation of Leslie Peterson. Leslie is the daughter of Glade Peterson, founder of the opera and is director of operations.Due to her disagreeing on the direction that the management is taking and her concerns about the merger, she resigned. To ensure a successful start of the merger, Anne has a few options. If the organization values Leslie and doesn’t want to see her go, Anne could meet with her and explain the plans for the merger. She could reassure Peterson that what her father built would remain the foundation of the organization going forward as it is built upon. Another direction Ewers could take would be to promote someone from within or hire a new addition to the team to replace Peterson.By replacing her, someone with a positive, supportive attitude that is excited and eager about the new merger would be a good fit for the combined groups. Anne could even look at replacing her with someone from the symphony to gain further trus t and respect from that group. With very little leadership weakness, this is one less thing Anne has to worry about. A3. The Utah Symphony could be considered as having a combination of two different cultures, create- looking to grow and expand, and collaborative- having an extended family feel.However, the collaborative culture best fits this organization. In organizations like this, employees work closely with one another. Employees can look to their leaders as supportive figures and feel fulfilled and safe with the work they do (Kelly, 2010). An example of this is Keith Lockhart and his relationship between the musicians and the board. Keith’s primary concern is the musicians. The business review also stated that the board would ultimately not move forward with the merger if Keith did not approve (Ager & Delong, 2005).The analysis of the scorecard is as follows: 1. Financial: The goal is to be financially stable and profitable by maintaining the same ticket price but incre asing fundraising to be able to do so and measuring this by profitability. This addresses their financial weakness as listed above (by remaining profitable, the 83 symphony members will be able to keep their jobs). In regards to their organizational culture, this supports collaborative culture, securing and supporting musician positions. 2.Customer: The goal is to meet customer wants and demands of seeing world-class performers appear and the organization can make this happen by hiring the top notch talent. To measure if they are successful at this, they will gather reviews and feedback from customers to gauge how well they are meeting demands. Through constructive feedback, the symphony will know if they are reaching their goal and delivering what customers want. Positive feedback will assure the group that their goals are being reached. The Utah Symphony envisions being world class and this is compliant with the vision. . Internal Process: Through the renegotiation of contracts wi th the musicians, their goal is to have some flexibility in decreasing expenses. The organization can measure this through the improvement of profitability. This was addressed earlier as a financial weakness and noted that if Anne is able to renegotiate contracts the organization would benefit financially. 4. Learning and Growth: The goal here is to offer a wider variety of symphonies to appeal to different audiences. This can be done by marketing towards those targeted groups, advertising symphonies of interest.An increase in ticket sales and returning audience is how this will be measured. While this exact scenario wasn’t listed above, it does reflect on the overall financial weakness and addresses the reducing the weakness by increasing profitability. All areas of this scorecard help address the financial weakness of the symphony and how to help alleviate it. In regards to the leadership weaknesses, the scorecard does not directly address them, but in the event they move f orward with the merger, they (leadership weaknesses) will be addressed then.The Utah Opera’s vision is to become a nationally renowned opera house by improving the quality of performances and increasing endowment funds. A complete organizational culture would best describe this organization. Complete cultures bring a results-driven environment and focus on success and reputation (Kelly, 2010). The culture differs from that of the symphony because the performers are not employed full time here, therefore lacking the extended family aspect as seen with the musicians. The analysis of the scorecard is as follows: 1.Financial: Through raising additional funds and realizing endowments, the groups’ goal is to be financially stable and obtain an increasing reserve fund. This goal will be measured by improving the reserve fund amount. As stated earlier, the financial stability of the opera is healthy and this shows one of the strengths of the group. 2. Customer: By excelling in the quality of performances and increasing patron attendance to full capacity or nearly selling-out, the goal of having regionally and nationally acclaimed opera performances will be reached.This will increase ticket sales, resulting in an increase profit. Through this increased attraction, investments will increase, maintaining the organizations’ strength of being financially sound. 3. Internal Process: The goal to maintain financial stability and to attract top talent is dependent on successful negotiations with the top performers. Customer reviews and profitability are measurements of this process. Top talent performances will increase ticket sales and will also allow the organization to grow both nationally and internationally through these popular performers.The boards’ vision will come to fruition in the event that this goal is met. 4. Learning and Growth: Setting this goal of 5 high-quality performances per year relies on measuring the endowment fund growth and increasing ticket sales. This can be measured by covering capital need by revenue from the ticket sales. With the growing group, individuals will be more likely to invest, adding to the groups’ financial strength yet again. In terms of the Utah Opera, all four aspects of this scorecard focus on strengthening their existing financial stability. This will help achieve the goals and vision the group has set.While the financial strengths are established in the scorecard, the leadership weaknesses are not addressed. However, the leadership weakness did not exist in the individual organization until the merger was made public and Peterson resigned, and therefore does not require being addressed. B. Merged Company Balanced Scorecard: The vision of the new company is to attract top performers while providing quality performances, being noted as a successful merged opera/symphony combination following the merger and maintaining a profitable organization while doing so. 1. Financial: Strategic Goal- Secure financial stability throughout the entire organization * Critical Success Factor- Maintain funding through opera patrons and increase the symphony’s through endowments and fundraising * Measure- Recognizing an overall increase in Surplus of the combined groups from one fiscal year to the next 2. Customer: * Strategic Goal- Through combining the opera and symphony, become known nationally (and internationally if possible) as one of the first successful at accomplishing this merger, therefore bringing in top talent that draws a wider range of performance- goers * Critical Success Factor- Recruiting op rated performers that viewers would be interested in seeing and that would bring extra attention to the organization * Measure- The organization would see performance attendees and ticket sales both increase 3. Internal Process: * Strategic Goal- Having revenue far exceed expenses, leaving a much larger surplus * Critical Success Factor- Negotiating new cont racts with the union for the musicians to hold off on pay raises and/or reduce salaries.Also, increasing fundraising and endowments * Measure- Successful increase in funding (endowments and fund-raising) as well as successful contract negotiations, reflected by an increased surplus 4. Learning and Growth: * Strategic Goal- Diversifying performances to attract different genres * Critical Success Factor- Making each performance unique and different from the last to attract different performance- goers * Measure- Gauge first time audience attendee by survey upon exiting performance and gather feedback C.When reviewing the proposed merged company, there will be some strengths and weaknesses of the new organization pertaining to each aspect of the scorecard as follows: 1. Financial: Historically, Anne has been successful in maintaining a healthy financial state of the opera. She exceeds in fundraising and attracting new endowments and is reflected in the surplus shown in Exhibit 3 (Ager & Delong, 2005). However, the weakness of the proposed merged company is the lack of a healthy financial state for the symphony. While their revenue appears much larger than that of the opera, so are expenses.Through the addition of the symphony, the financial state will decrease the strength of the opera, in turn weakening the overall financial state. The contract negotiations and work to increase endowments and fundraising will help alleviate this weakness. 2. Customer: When combining the two groups, they will have a greater ability to bring in more well known special performers. This potentially will bring in new patrons. However, through this strength, also comes a weakness- they would need to figure out how to attract these new customers to get them to the performances.This could be resolved through advertisement and support of community involvement. From being involved with the community, they will have the opportunity to hear what patrons would like to see, and gauge performa nces based on interest. 3. Internal Process: The strength as the combined group is that they will be much more capable of offering a wider variety of arts. With the management team they have and past challenges they have accomplished, the two groups together will be able to succeed in things on a larger scale.The one weakness to having such a strong internal process is not having enough funding to support efforts. As mentioned above, funding issues can be resolved through contract negotiations, increased endowment contributions and fundraising. 4. Learning and Growth: Together, as one organization, they will be able to grow through recruiting top rated talent for performances and learn what it is that their customers want to see. While this is growing, the slight weakness they will encounter is the time it takes for the economy to rebound and for sales to start increasing.D. During the merger process, a few highly probable issues could arise in finance, human resources, and customer satisfaction. Financially, the opera is sound. However they will more than likely become reduced due to the fact that they will have to help make up for the lack of financial stability of the symphony. Eventually, this can be resolved through contract negotiations with the musicians, increased fundraising and endowments, and through the economic rebound, allowing more viewers to attend performances.In regards to human resources, an issue will probably arise when Ewers approaches the union to re-negotiate contracts. While both the organization and the musicians are dependent upon each other, some sort of agreement will have to be worked out and the human resources department will need to be involved. Finally, with all of the skepticism brewing in the community of combining the two groups, there will more than likely be some contributors that will be hesitant to continue donating their normal contributions.While it will be a difficult challenge to overcome, the new organization can r ectify the situation by bringing in top rated performers as soon as possible that support the growth and excitement of the newly combined group. References Ager, David L. & Delong, Thomas J. , â€Å"Utah Symphony and Utah Opera: A Merger Proposal† August 8, 2005, Harvard Business Review Kelly, The Types of Organizational Culture, May 4, 2010 retrieved March 10, 2013 from http://blorgtheory. com/2010/05/04/the-types-of-organizational-culture/

Family Culture And Traditions Essay

In our family, there are several cultures and traditions that play a very important role in defining our family values and cultures. These traditions and cultures have been passed to our parents from our grandparents. The two most vivid cultural patterns that are present in our family have been inherited by our parents from the blending of the culture from my maternal grandparents and my fraternal grandparents. The cultural patterns Every Sunday, our father always prepares supper for the family and he makes sure that we eat together as one family. This tradition has been there in our family for a long period and helps us to bond together as a family unit. Every night on the eve of my birthday or that of my siblings, our parents usually sneaks into our bed room and fills it with balloons which are stuffed with money and toys. My father usually writes several bunches of poems and leaves the written poems on our table. When we wake up in the morning, our mother usually prepares for us a birthday morning cake which we enjoy together as a family as we read the bunch of poems. Different roles in upholding the traditions During our Sunday’s family dinner/supper, my parents dwells on teaching us on the way forward in regards to behaviour and especially the use of courteous words such as ‘please’ and ‘thank you’. They discourage talking when the mouth is full as well as placing of the elbows on the table. Also during this time, my parents taught us the developmental skills like literacy skills when story telling during family conversations. During these conversations, my parents would learn more on our attitudes and interests. From these meals, my parents gauge our moods and needs thus helping us solve our problems in the end. My parents oversee the family to ensure that everybody attends to maintain the unity and stability in the family. The dinner table or birthday party is a significant place for socialization especially for the children. These act as prime setting for socialization regarding the norms and rules on values of the family and the acceptable behaviour. From the nutritional perspective, the children master what is considered acceptable; basically the foods and non-food materials. From the family dinners and birthdays, my siblings and I have discovered manners and behaviour restraints that the wider world requires. Through conversations of the family during birthday parties and family dinner, we learned of our parents’ interests and attitudes in relations to the world. We always help our father to prepare for the family dinner on Sundays. As the eldest, I helped my father prepare the foods and especially the desert and vegetables while my other younger siblings have inevitably prepared the table. The Purpose As part of our tradition, the family meal is a symbol of a shared family life. On Sunday’s, family supper/dinner acts to bringing us together in the family. This greatly leads to our social well-being at the same time providing predictable structure to our Sundays which is often reassuring especially psychologically. In our family, everybody is involved in this activity and this applies to the buying of food, preparations of food done by my father, making and laying the table, and finally serving of food. With all this participation, it is not a surprise that the provision of this  family meal is a classic demonstration that we love and care for our family stability and unity. From the initial stages of shopping to clearing the table, each member of the family participates in this exercise responsibly and this promotes family solidarity. The Reflection on the Tradition Though we have a happy family, we also experience our setbacks. At the end of the day, the members of the family who are already exhausted after a busy day at school or work and probably maybe irascible meet for a family meal or party. Hostility may arise perceived at the dinner/party table maybe because of the injustices and behaviour which is unacceptable. Refusal to eat, complaining about bad cooking or lack of appreciation on whatever served on the table are some of the things that can lead to these conflict at the dinning/party table. Therefore, family dinners and birthday parties have many positive virtues that are sometimes fought with strain and negative consequences which greatly depend on the styles of parenting. As a socially combining role, when we share a meal during birthdays or Sunday dinner, it brings people together in a network of reciprocal commitments and shared social relationships. As a tradition routine, Sunday family dinner prepared by my father has been most frequent planned ritual activity in our family which usually takes place in our family house. The family meal and birthday parties in specific have come to represent the dynamics of the family and overtime generations are complaining on its downfall. In the times of change, family meals and parties represented solidity and perhaps the complaint of the lost family may in fact be the response to feared exchange in the arrangements and frameworks of families. These family traditions still influence me to date. This is due to the fact that they provide a source of identity on top of strengthening the family bond. I believe that the families that engage in frequent traditional  practices report stronger relationship and unity than families that haven’t accepted rituals together. I will carry my family traditions in future because I view them as a way of offering comfort and security. This is because our family beliefs and rituals are the cure to the feeling that comes from our world which is fast-paced and ever-changing. It’s relieving to have a few constants in one’s life. Am also for the idea that these family traditions teach values and this is achieved by for instance through family stories where the value of education, life-long learning and reading is instilled; and through regular family dinners or parties, the centrality of familial togetherness is instilled. With all this in mind, I will definitely carry these traditions in the future.

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Individuals in Organizations - Essay Example The degree of employees' commitment in FMC Aberdeen is much higher than in other FMC facilities, including Green River. The ways for the managers to ensure personnel's commitment are encouraging their creativity, training staff, and regarding failures as a way to learn new things and succeed in future (Sonnenberg 1993) The facility seems to be a "family" for every worker, and the approach used by the managers makes people believe they are truly valued. Team work is of particular importance for FMC Aberdeen, and this also makes the staff more committed. Important factors are also bonuses and rewards introduced by the companies. Yet, the challenges both locations are likely to face are worth considering, and as far as commitment of people to their organisation goes, it is vital to pay attention to the problem of loss of motivation even by the most committed employees. In order to retain staff, its motivation should be constantly maintained and enhanced.

Four Yogic Paths and Jainism Worksheet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Four Yogic Paths and Jainism Worksheet - Essay Example They offer sacrifices to the deities and tirthankaras. Jainism practice devotional deeds that have positive effects on an individual’s state of karma. Further, they aim the mind on reasonable and good behavior. Hinduism and Jainism share some religious aspects such as outlook on behavior and life, practices, beliefs, religious fasts and festivals, rituals and sacraments. There are several things between Hindus and Jainas, and particularly the vegetarian Hindus found in India. For instance, there exist certain castes in India whose members are found in both the Jainas and the Hindus, and that marital affiliations are still practiced between the Hindus and the Jainas. The distinction or differences between the Jainas and the Hindus are seen in the scriptures and the emergence of the world and its creator. The Hindu sacred scriptures like the Puranas, Smirtis and the Vedas are rejected by the Jainas while the Hindus do not accept any book from the Jainas. In addition, as the Hindus argue that God created the world, the Jainas hold that the world is eternal and that there is no creator. In Hinduism, worship is conducted of several forms of one powerful God who is the ruler and the creator of the world while in Jainism; worship is not conducted to an eternal God but to great individuals who have attained Godhood. The importance of worship in Hinduism is not similar to Jainism in that in Hinduism, the achievement of desired goals is by the will of certain supernatural beings that are to be pleased. Contrary, in Jainism, there is no prayer or offerings made to divine beings. Further, as the Hindus belief that Gods alone can achieve liberation, the Jainas hold that it is the rights of human beings. The way of salvation prescribed by Jainism is via the threefold paths of right conduct, knowledge and belies which all people should pursue. Contrary, Hindus have no prescription of any single path that a person should pursue to

AI Week 11 Criminal DB 153 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

AI Week 11 Criminal DB 153 - Essay Example It is therefore important to address the issue of whether criminal background should be applied in a blanket manner to influence hiring decisions. According to the every person should be given a second chance at proving their suitability to perform. Employers are faced with the ethical dilemma of balancing the safety of their businesses with fairness and in certain instances declining someone’s application for job could result into legal sues. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission in the year 2012 released guidelines that prohibit adoption of blanket policies in disqualifying job applicants based on their past criminal records. a past a criminal record doesn’t mean one is incapacitated and EEOC holds that blanket policies treating blacks and Latinos having criminal pasts differently from whites is discriminative and hence illegal. Regardless of whether employers equally apply a law, it is illegal for as longs it harms certain protected groups more than others. This does not prohibit employers from conducting criminal background checks but requires them to prove that their policies are able to link certain c riminal offences and their danger with those risks inherent to particular job positions. In conclusion therefore criminal background checks if not carefully conducted can be discriminative and as such employers are to strive and meet the legal EEOC’S guidelines. Ones criminal past should be checked in terms of nature and gravity, the time that has gone by since one was convicted or completed their sentence and type of job one is applying for. employers should try not apply blanket policies by initiating the criminal backgrounds checks at least at interview level, ensure their policies are in line with necessities of the business, ensure fairness and constantly train the HR teams to apply the best practices of hiring and also

Government funding for education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Government funding for education - Essay Example Therefore, we come to the million dollar questions: How much is today’s government giving to the educational sector? How is the money distributed? Is it enough or more is needed? More importantly, why is government funding so important? First is the State Nursery School, which caters preschool students up to five years. These are usually attached to a primary school, run by the local education authority and are free (BBC, 2009). These centres are essential for high quality early learning and care for children. Realizing the importance, the government has announced extra funding for Nursery Schools in the form of free study hours. News headings flashed across the screens of all leading news channels around the globe in not so recent past: â€Å"Childrens Minister Beverley Hughes has pledged  £340m to extend the entitlement from 12.5 to 15 hours a week† (BBC, 2007). Second and Third Levels are occupied by Primary Schools and High Schools. They, too, are a part of public education. According to the Encyclopaedia Wikipedia, public education is defined as: â€Å"Education mandated for or offered to the children of the general public by the government, whether national, regional, or local, provided by an institution of civil government, and paid for, in whole or in part, by taxes. â€Å" These schools are funded by the Central Government through the local authority according to a range of formulae based on the number and range of each school’s pupils. This is commonly known as delegated funding. Lots has it been put into the development of education at this level. In June 2002, the minister of Education and Young People announced a 1.15 billion package of investment through fifteen public private partnership projects to build schools. In March of 2003, a further of 748 million was pledged to the above mentioned investment package (SEED, 20 04). Next comes the higher education-college and

Separation of Powers in the U.S. Constitution Essay

Separation of Powers in the U.S. Constitution - Essay Example Congress is the only body with legislation powers in the United States. Nondelegation doctrine illustrates that Congress cannot delegate this law making duty, to any other organization. Supreme Court illustrated in Clinton v. City of New York (1998) that Congress cannot delegate to the president the â€Å"line-item veto† because of guarantees in the Constitution. Executive power and authority is vested and practiced by the President of United States. The president is the Commander in Chief of the United States Army and Navy, has authority to make appointments to office and treaties, the militia of states during service, receives ambassadors, receives public ministers, and ensures the faithful execution of the laws. Congress writes legislation to guide executive officials in the performance of the duties in accordance with the law. The Supreme Court in, INS v. Chadha (1983), illustrated that all legislative powers are vested in Congress; for bills to become law, they must be ap proved by the President (Kilman & Costello 158). Judicial power entails the ability of determining controversies and cases. This power is practiced by the Supreme Court, and junior courts initiated by Congress. It is not clearly illustrated, in the constitution, the superiority of any government branch over others. But, James Madison illustrated in Federalist 51 that each branch has different abilities to defend itself against actions of others; for instance, in the republican government, the predominant authority if legislative.

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Article Example (Hurwit) Although this in itself does not have to do with religious diversity, the fact of the matter is that such a belief is a matter of religious diversity. Because there is no official state religion that can make laws as it chooses, people are able to decide what they want to do based on other concerns. They are also able to choose a religion for themselves if they do not like or believe in the doctrines of a specific religion like the Catholic Church used in this example. The author also discusses the fact that it is illegal under United States law for a tax-exempt organization like the Catholic Church to â€Å"campaign on behalf of or against a candidate.† (Hurwit) Since letting religious organizations elect specific people to office would basically let them do what they wanted with the government, these laws make sure that there is still freedom of religion and therefore religious diversity. The news event that the author is talking about specifically is the Catholic Churchs relationship with a representative from Rhode Island called Patrick Kennedy. Since he said he didnt like the fact that they were trying to affect the health care bill on the basis of abortions, they sent him a letter telling him to stop going to church. Derakhshani, Tirdad. â€Å"Oh my: God doc includes all faiths, no insights.† Philadelphia Inquirer. November 27 2009. Web. December 5 2009. This article discusses a documentary film which was shot to discuss the different religions of the world and to show people that there is a lot of religious diversity. The fact that it is an American film shows that there is a lot of focus in the United States on the topic of religious diversity, and that it is an important issue that people are interested in. The film, according to the writer of this review, didnt

Child development Essay Example for Free

Child development Essay The following essay will examine factors that affect a child’s learning and development. All children are distinctive individuals and differ in pattern and timing of maturation, as well as individual personality, learning style, cultural and family background. Each child has its own varying strengths, weaknesses, specific needs and skills. The age of a child is an effective indicator to the sequence of stages of development; however, it is only an estimation of maturation, as the mentioned independent factors will differ from child to child. The stages of development in children aged one to five years include the prenatal period, infancy, toddler stage, and early childhood and cover a plethora of progress in all areas of development. Expected changes in growth take place in all areas of development, particularly in the early years, and these include physical, intellectual, language, emotional, and social development. The first five years of life are crucial for expanding the foundations for learning and development. Research has shown that the developing child is learning to discover, communicate, and extend ideas about how things work. Read more: Factors that influence child development essay The successful progress of these abilities and skills depend largely on a child’s early environment. Parents, teachers, and care providers promote development and learning when they provide experiences that build on and extend the child’s capabilities. However, it is clear from evidence on both sides of the argument that development and learning result from a contribution of both biological factors and environmental factors. Empiricists believe environmental influences shape learning and development, while nativists emphasise inborn, genetic characteristics influence development (Bee, 2006b). Development could be described as an interactive relationship between the inherited qualities of an individual and the external environment. A child’s emotional and social development is shaped by internal influences, for example, a child may be inherently shy or outgoing, however the environment will also influence the child’s social and emotional development, such as successful first relationships, cultural values and how family and peers interact with the child, i. e. the child’s immediate social environment. Cognitive development could be influenced by internal factors. Research has shown that teratogens (legal or illegal drugs), smoking, alcohol consumption can have adverse affects on cognitive development (Bee, 2006 a). A study by Monuteaux, (2006) shows the negative effects of smoking on the development of a child, and there is speculative study that maternal diet and smoking could be causal factors of ADHD (Bakker, 2003). Scarr (1983) summarises the internal and external influences on children’s development, â€Å"Both genes and environments are constituents in the developmental system, but they have different roles. Genes direct the course of human experience, but experiential opportunities are also necessary for development to occur† (Scarr, 1983, pp. 433). It is interesting to consider cognitive development in children and the subsequent affect on learning and behaviour. Piaget was an influential Swiss psychologist who researched cognitive development. Piaget believes cognitive development transpires through a combination of direct experience from one’s environment and an instinctive structure of biological maturation. Piaget suggested individuals are born with intellect to serve as a basic function that assists adaptation to their environment (Shaffer, 1989). His theory proposes that development proceeds through a set of four stages from infancy to adulthood. Piaget believed that the first stage of cognitive development is the sensorimotor stage; this occurs in the first two years of a child’s life and involves infants using motor skills and all the senses, sight, smell, touch etc to explore and gain an understanding of the environment. Preoperational stage progresses from the sensorimotor stage and includes the use of language to understand the environment, images and symbols are also used to represent the environment; this is from two to seven years of age. Piaget believed language is egocentric at this stage. The next stage is termed concrete operations and children begin to use logical thought processes to further their understanding and occurs from ages seven to eleven. Formal Operation is the last stage Piaget believes takes place in cognitive development and it involves the ability to use abstract thought processes. This is from eleven onwards (Shaffer, 1989). The central idea of Piaget’s cognitive theory is the attainment of schemas, and further assimilation and accommodation of these schemas constantly return the child to a state of equilibrium. A schema is any thought or object that one may have experienced and is then organised to aid coherence. Assimilation is the process of adding new information to enhance the understanding of an existing schema, and thus producing a new schema. Accommodation is the adjustment of an existing schema in order to include new information. Equilibration is the term Piaget uses to describe the balance a child reaches when it satisfied with a schema, new information places the child in a state of disequilibrium or imbalance, until, assimilation and accommodation allow equilibration to take place. As with all theories, Piaget was criticised for placing too much emphasis on environment and not considering social interaction as an impacting force (Cohen, 1993). It has also been suggested that children appear to have existing understanding of basic principles, e. g. a study by Gibson and Walk, used a ‘visual cliff’ where a checkerboard pattern continued several feet below a glass table. The test showed that infants as young as 5 months were able to perceive depth, and would not proceed when they reached the end of the ‘cliff’ (Bee, 2006b). This shows that many foundations of cognitive ability are already present and further learning will increase cognitive development. Vygotsky is another central figure in the domain of constructivist theory; however, he differs from Piaget in that Vygotsky places more emphasis on social learning and its effect on cognitive development. His theory focuses on a term he called ‘zone of proximal development’ and defined it as â€Å"the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers† (Vygotsky, 1978, p. 86). Vygotsky believed that learning takes place in this zone. The idea of ZPD suggests that cognitive development is established by social learning with capable peers or adults and cooperative analytical skills. In contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky stated that development was an intricate lifelong process that could not be defined into stages, but instead is to be examined as a means of development rather than an end. Vygotsky’s theory reflects correlation between learning and development. Newborn children are constantly learning from their experiences and they form understanding from theses experiences, Vygotsky, believes this learning is directly linked to sociocultural perspective. As they grow older, infants readily learn from observation and cooperative learning with peers and adults (Moyles, Miller) The psychodynamic approach addresses children’s learning by focusing on internal mechanisms, such as instincts, conflicts and unconscious forces. A familiar idea of this theory is that unconscious as well as conscious forces regulate behaviour. Freud suggested three intuitive drives for survival, the sexual drive to reproduce the human race, hunger and pain trigger the instinct to preserve one’s life and aggressive drives are the third force. Freud’s theory is criticised on many accounts, mostly that he suggests the main underlying cause of problems are sexually related, and secondly it is scientifically difficult to measure the hidden unconscious of a being. Freud’s theory implies that children learn behaviour through the progress of three stages. The newborn and infant are driven by what he termed the id; this is an inborn instinct, which demands instant gratification. As the child grows older, it learns that it cannot achieve instant gratification all the time, and the ego develops as an intermediary pacifier, which takes social contexts into consideration and delays gratification. The superego is the higher form of moral reasoning and is often considered as a parental restrictor, this last stage develops much later in development (Bee, 2006b). It can be seen how Freud’s theory affects social and emotional development and behaviour in the first five years, as most children at this age are controlled by the id and the developing ego. Erikson’s theory is often viewed as an extension of Freud’s psychosexual theory of Development. Erikson suggests that development progresses over a lifespan and he portrays this in his theory of the eight stages of psychosocial development. His theory proposes that each stage has a conflict within it that must be resolved before proceeding to the next stage; each stage presents the opportunity for success or failure. The first three stages are relevant in the first five years of a child’s life and include emotional, social and cognitive development on behaviour acquisition. The first stage is trust versus mistrust and takes place in the period of the first two years of infancy; this stage propounds an emotional crisis in which the child must successfully develop trust and security and emotional well-being. If the care provider does not reciprocate emotional care positively the child becomes mistrustful. Once the child has learned trust, it advances to the next stage of autonomy versus shame, and approximately takes place in early childhood. This stage concentrates on the child’s ability to develop confidence and a sense of independence. Children at this age (approximately two to four years) begin to manage small parts of their lives, and Erikson suggests toilet training is a huge feat in establishing independence in a child. It also consists of decision-making and choice over things like food, clothes etc, if a child is unsuccessful in this stage then it leads to shame and a feeling of inadequacy. The third stage occurs from about three to five years of age, and incorporates the child’s ability to play and develop social skills of leadership or subordination, power and a sense of self. If the child cannot overcome the crisis then inhibition, fear and a prolonged development are the result. The successful child proceeds to the next stage and so forth (Brain 2005) The humanistic perspective argues that behaviour is subjective as individuals determine and control their own thoughts and actions. Maslow hypothesised a hierarchy of need, in which each level of the hierarchy had to be satisfied before the human need moved on to the next level. For example, according to Maslow’s hierarchy it is not perceived that an individual would desire the comfort of a spouse or children, if basic physiological needs such as food and water were not satisfied (Bee 2006a). Children develop and learn most productively in the environment of a community where they are safe and valued, and their emotional and physiological needs fulfilled. If physical nourishment is transpiring then Maslow’s theory depicts emotional well-being as an important factor, certainly all aspects of development are influenced by successfully accomplishing positive first relationships. This provides the constructive foundation for effective social and emotional development, which will inadvertently affect cognitive development as well. Skinner constructed a theory he termed operant conditioning, and based it on the notion that learning is a means of behaviour modification. His experiments show how he conditioned rats to pull a lever to release food, the incentive for the rats was the food and the required behaviour was pulling the lever. The theory illustrates that changes in behaviour are the consequences of an individual’s reaction to incentives that occur in any given environment; subsequently the reaction will produce an outcome. When a specific response is reinforced, behaviour is conditioned, and the individual will respond to a stimulus to achieve its incentive; the result will be consistent each time. The crucial aspect of Skinner’s model is reinforcement, a particular behaviour can be acquired through reward, and certain behaviours prevented through punishment (Brain, 2005). Skinner’s theory belongs to the Behaviourist approach and is effective in explaining some of the causes and modifications of behaviour; it is often used in schools to elicit particular behaviours from children (usually in the form of sweets or stickers). Social learning theory clarifies behaviour in terms of consistent equal correlation between cognitive, behavioural, and environmental influences. Social learning theory has four main components, attention, retention, motor reproduction and motivation, which cover physical, cognitive and behavioural development. Attention requires concentration so that the events are observed accurately. Retention includes the intellectual organization of information in order to store it effectively in the memory and remember the correct processes of events. Motor reproduction includes the physical ability to imitate the behaviour, for example, a human is not physically able to fly like superman. Motivation involves the child to be willing and motivated to imitate the behaviour. The observed consequences of a particular behaviour (whether punished or rewarded) may influence a child’s decision to imitate or not, Bandura called this modeling (Brain 205) One of the famous experiments conducted by Albert Bandura, known as the ‘Bobo doll’ experiment revealed that children imitated aggressive physical and verbal behaviour towards the dolls, exactly as they had observed, whereas the children who observed non-aggressive behaviour displayed practically no aggressive behaviour (Shaffer, 1989). Bandura suggests that social behaviour is learned primarily by observing and imitating the actions of others. Children are often observed imitating adults in role-play. Punishment and reward are also influences on behavioural development as mentioned in Skinner’s theory, for example, a child may observe a peer being rewarded with a sticker for tidying up and then learn that to obtain a sticker s/he must also tidy up. This theory facilitates an understanding of how behaviour is acquired and how it may be modified. John Bowlby developed attachment theory and he suggested that first relationships are the basis for young childrens development, predominantly their social and emotional development. Bowlby (1979: 129) states â€Å" attachment behaviour is held to characterize human beings from the cradle to the grave†; much of Bowlby’s work was on the maternal bond that develops with a child. He believed that the connection between mother and child, or caregiver and child has a basic gentle and evolutionary basis, in order for the child to receive appropriate care, protection and nourishment; it has a tendency to maintain nearness to the main caregiver. Bowlby maintained that a child displays attachment behaviour when separated from the main care provider, first as protest, then despair and finally as detachment. First relationships can be summarised as â€Å"a deeply rooted motivational system that ensures close contact between babies and adult caregivers who can protect, nurture, and guide their development† (Shonkoff, 2000, p 230). Bowlby expanded and utilised various research to support his theory, one of his early works included research on delinquent adolescents and discovered maternal deprivation to be a recurring matter. Michael Rutter (1981) criticized Bowlby’s theory, and suggested that early experiences cannot be held as direct underlying causes for later emotional distress, Rutter believed it is more significant how children are looked after in the period of severance not the actual severance itself (Cowie, 2002). Bowlby introduced three stages of attachment, during the first pre-attachment phase (0-2 months) babies do not develop a particular attachment, and are content to be cared for by anyone. In the second phase (2-7 months) babies show a firm attachment to the main caregiver and cling to this figure when in the presence of a stranger, Bowlby termed this ‘stranger fear’. The last phase is around two years of age and is labelled separation anxiety, the infant is confident to move away from the main caregiver provided they remain physically present for the child to return to Brain (2005). Bowlby suggested that constant loving care and nurturing was essential during the crucial phase between approximately 6 months and 3 years of age, maternal deprivation or separation from the primary caregiver would result in considerable detrimental effects on social and emotional development of the child (Cowie, 2002). Harlow and Harlow’s famous experiment on Rhesus monkeys provided support to Bowlby’s theory (Bowlby, 1973). In these experiments, young monkeys were separated from their mother shortly after birth. Two wire monkeys were substituted as artificial surrogate mothers. The first monkey was made of wire mesh and provided food; however, the second monkey was covered with foam and cloth and only provided comfort. The young monkeys nursed at the wire monkey but sought contact with the cloth monkey. The experiment showed that infants need a mother’s love and comfort, and it proved that infants prefer proximity and comfort from a mother, rather than just using the mother for nourishment. The young monkeys clutched to the soft cloth doll and explored more when in the presence of the soft cloth doll, and the doll seemed to provide them with a sense of security. Infants reared without normal social interaction with other monkeys, displayed either fearful or aggressive behaviour and the effects were apparent from two years of age, well into adulthood (Brain 2005). The experiment portrayed the importance of warmth, love and comfort that a nurturing mother or primary carer provides is essential for intellectual, social and emotional development. Mary Ainsworth’s research was based on an experiment to observe attachment behaviour between a child and the primary caregiver (usually the mother) the experiment is known as the strange situation. The procedure involves a child playing in a room, meanwhile the caregiver and stranger alternately enter and leave the room, the child’s play behaviour and responses to caregiver and stranger are observed. The experiment placed children in four categories of attachment, secure, insecure-avoidant, insecure-resistant and disorganized. Attachment theorists are realizing that children differ from birth, but individual personalities and development are influenced by social experience, environment, and the attachment relationship is affected by the characteristics of both child and caregiver (Parkes, 1993) Cultural differences in child-rearing practices have various implications and meanings across cultures. Culture defines a set of beliefs and patterns of behaviour; this can be in a social, religious, societal or ethnic context. Culture clearly has an influence on the development of children, Edwards and Gandini (1989) point out that culture organises and translates children’s behaviour and development (Hinde, 1993). â€Å"To understand development we must come to terms with the ways in which individuals, in developing their own self-concepts and participating in social relationships, both shape and are shaped by their social and cultural environment† (Hinde, 1993). In a research paper Reebye, (2006) found various studies on cultural differences in child rearing and the impact this had on child development. Chen et al. (1998) studied reticent behaviour in Chinese and Canadian children and the child-rearing attitudes of the relative mothers. The results showed that Chinese babies were significantly more withdrawn and shy than their Canadian counterparts, and the underlying cause of this behaviour difference lay in parental styles and attitudes. Taciturn behaviour was positively associated with the Chinese mother’s approval, whereas the Canadian mothers negatively received it, which implies a variation of the connotation of behaviour inhibition across both cultures (Reebye, 2006). Another example Reebye (2006) presents is a study conducted by Marcovitchet al (1997) which assessed the development, attachment and behavioural problems in adopted Romanian orphans between three to five years of age. The study revealed that children who had spent less time I institutional car displayed better development outcomes and more securely attached compared to the group of children who had spent more than six months in institutional care. The latter group were insecurely attached and scored less on development outcomes. The disadvantage of cross-cultural studies is the limitations of the range of studies in measuring attitudes, beliefs, cultural practices etc. Reebye (2006) continues to describe the importance of relationship development and its effects on affective, cognitive, social development and moral and ethical attitudes. Child-rearing practices and attachment directly influence these developmental factors, and it is important to remember that parenting practices are in turn influenced by social and cultural traditions. †The factors such as parental intuition, parental attitudes, attributions and beliefs, learned parenting skills, accepted cultural and societal parenting norms, family factors, and environmental factors such as extended family support, poverty or unemployment are the most influential ones. Each of these or all collectively, can be considered from a cross-cultural perspective. † (Reebye 2006). In today’s modern and often changing world, many cultures also change and adapt, from generation to generation. Changes in societal norms, immigration and such alike affect child-rearing practice considerably, such single parenting is a common family structure, yet in the Victorian times was extremely rare and frowned upon, other changes include inter-racial adoptions, parenting by same sex couples, use of surrogate mothers etc. It can be suggested that children’s social, emotional and cognitive development is indisputably influenced by environmental factors, genetic compositions, attachment and first relationship, cultural traditions and this is reflected in their unique personalities and behaviour. â€Å"In general, there is a need to understand multiple outcomes of child development (cognitive, physical, social, and emotional) within the context of multiple factors (social, economic, cultural, and community-level)† (The National Institute of Health, 2006). The first five years are important to understand the influences and causal links of child development in the early years. This may facilitate children’s well-being and ensure that government policies regarding children are reflective of child development needs, in particular families living in poverty or deprived areas. For example, quality of schools and education will affect cognitive development, and racial, gender, and religious integration will have positive effects on social development. It can be inferred that positive emotional development underpins all other areas of development, and if emotional development is defective then it will be replicated across other areas of development. In essence, all areas of development are interwoven and interdependent. The first five years are crucial for positive development, basic needs such as food, sleep and safety ensures good physical development, providing love, comfort and positive first relationships and attachments is essential to assist emotional development, which will also helps social development, and the correct stimulation and interaction ensures healthy cognitive development. REFERENCES Bakker, S. C. Van Der Meulen, E. M. Buitelaar, J. K. Sandkuijl, L. A. Pauls, D. L. Monsuur, A. J. Vant Slot, R. Minderaa. R. B. Gunning, W. B. Pearson, P. L. Sinke, R. J. (2003) â€Å"A Whole-Genome Scan in 164 Dutch Sib Pairs with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Suggestive Evidence for Linkage on Chromosomes 7p and 15q† American Journal of Human Genetics, Vol. 72, pp. 1251-1260 Bee, H. (2006a) Lifespan Development, Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc Bee, H. (2006b) The Developing Child, Boston, MA: Parson Education, Inc Bowlby, J. (1973) Separation: Anxiety Anger. Vol. 2 of Attachment and loss London: Hogarth Press; New York: Basic Books; Harmondsworth: Penguin Brain, C and Mukherjee, P. (2005) Understanding Child Psychology, Cheltenham: Nelson Thornes Ltd Cohen, D. (1993) The Development of Play, 2nd edition. London: Routledge Cowie, H. (2002) ‘Child Care and Attachment’ in Barnes, P (Ed), Personal, Social and Emotional Development of Children Milton Keynes: Blackwell Publishers Ltd Hinde, R and Hinde, J. (1993) ‘Perspectives on Attachment’ in Parkes, C. M. (Editor), Attachment Across the Life Cycle, Florence, KY, USA: Routledge http://site. ebrary. com/lib/uclan Monuteaux, M. C. Blacker, D. Biederman, J. Fitzmaurice, G and Buka, S. L. (2006) â€Å"Maternal smoking during pregnancy and offspring overt and covert conduct problems: a longitudinal study† Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 47, No. 9, pp. 883–890 National Institute of Health. (2006) The science and Ecology Of Early Development (SEED), http://grants. nih. gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-04-113. html Reebye, P. N, Ross. S. E and Jamieson. K (2006) A Literature review of the child-Parent/ Caregiver attachment theory and Cross-Cultural Practices influencing attachment, www. attachmentacrosscultures. org/research/#1: accessed on 19/12/2006 Scarr, S. , K. McCartney. (1983) ‘How people make their own environments: A theory of genotype-environment effects’, Child Development, Vol. 54, pp 425-35. Shaffer, D. R. (1989) Developmental Psychology, Childhood and Adolescence, 2nd Edition, California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. Shonkoff, J. P. (2000) From Neurons to Neighbourhoods: The Science of Early Childhood Development. Washington, DC, USA: National Academy Press, http://site. ebrary. com/lib/uclan/ Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Traditional Litigation and the Non-Traditional Alternative Dispute Resolution Essay Example for Free

Traditional Litigation and the Non-Traditional Alternative Dispute Resolution Essay There are many ways to handle a dispute. Many people chose to use the traditional litigation system, which are lawsuit being brought forth in the courts and some people choose alternative routes which may not always be involved in the court. The formal definition of traditional litigation is â€Å"the process of bringing, maintaining, and defending a lawsuit. This is also called judicial dispute resolution because courts are used to decide the case† (Cheeseman, 2010). Alternative Dispute Resolution is defined as â€Å"methods of resolving disputes other than litigation† (Cheeseman, 2010). Alternative Dispute Resolution By far the most common form of ADR is arbitration, however other types of ADR exist such as negotiation, mediation, conciliation, mini-trial, fact-finding, and the use of a judicial referee. â€Å"Negotiation is a procedure whereby the parties to a dispute engage in negotiations to try to reach a voluntary settlement of their dispute† (Cheeseman, 2010). Negotiations can go on for an extended amount of time to ensure that both parties are satisfied. Mediation is another type of ADR in which all parties involved in the issue select and agreed to use neutral third party that assumes the role of an intermediary that between both parties. The sole purpose of this intermediary is to facilitate a settlement between the parties. If an accord is reached by the disputing parties, then a settlement agreement is written and executed by the parties. Conciliation is a method of ADR frequently used when the parties involve do not wish to face each other in a confrontational venue. In this method an interested party known as a conciliator assists the party’s dispute to reach a settlement. The conciliator facilitates this process by the communicating offers and counter-offers of settlement between the two parties. Traditional Litigation System The traditional litigation system is where two parties (defendant and plaintiff) go forward in a court of law to solve a certain issue that they have with each other. In a traditional legal system the contents of the case publicity is not considered because adverse publicity is what is associated with litigation. The expenses in the traditional litigation system can become expensive and costly; this is the reason that some people chose Alternative Dispute Resolutions. Differences between Systems The two legal systems have some major differences. In the ADR system the resolution is usually less formal and less intimidating than in the traditional legal system. The resolutions are quicker and less expensive, the dispute is usually heard by an arbitrator or mediator and at the end of the â€Å"trail† the respondents will receive an opinion which can be filed with the court to become binding and turned into a judgment. The traditional legal system or trials are usually a more formal and slower process. The trials are more expensive because of the length of the trials. Trials are often heard before a judge and the judgments are binding through the court systems. Conclusion A person has to choose to decide which of the legal systems work best for them. It is important for a claimant to compare and contrast the impact that either of the systems would have on their particular situation.

The Rise And Development Of American Novel English Literature Essay

The Rise And Development Of American Novel English Literature Essay When we speak about American Literature, we are speaking about written works that were produced in America geographically or politically. Apart from English writers the American writers also proved their worth in creating literature such as is able to be recognized as one the best masterpieces of the English works. The genre of novel gave the novelists a medium to speak freely to the world seeking comfort and knowledge contrasted to the other genres of literature in which apart from creativity a writer has to seek many other techniques of writing which sometimes hurdle the writer to express his or her true meaning. The category is as wide as poetry: novels are long prose fictions, including every kind of Plot (tragic, comic), all styles and manners of dealing with their material (from the satiric to rhapsodic) and showing a capacity to cover every imaginative subject matter from all points of view. They range from the popular Thriller to the most esoteric literary artifice. The capacity of the form to absorb other literary styles, its freedom to develop in any direction and its flexibility, have made the novel the major modern literary form.(Gray, 198). There are many reasons which show the absence of cultural voices in the early American novel. First of all there was no authentic American language or medium of expression avaiable for literary purpose. Americans were in a process to coin new style of language that could be considered as the American language distinguished from the English style or Englsih writing style. There was also lack of cultural support for the Americans to create new ideas or creative efforts. America due to the impact of colonialism was not in a strong position to depict its utmost culture in its works of literature. American culture tended to be parochial and generally distrustful of any written expression that was not didactic. For example, clergy such as Janathan Edwards taught that reading novels was an indulgence leading to moral decline. Due to an unstable society, there could be no stable American genre of the novel. Cathy Davidson and others have argued that some novels tried to attain an ideological status (Revolution and the Word, 1986) which is a critique of the existing order, and that the more popular the genre became, the more those vested with cultural authority worried over their loss of dominance. This was especially true because novels, unlike sermons, required no intermediaries for interpretation. The early American novel, as a genre, tended to proclaim a society egalitarian message. It spoke forà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦orphans, beggar girls, factory girls, or other unfortunates, and it repeatedly advocated the general need for female education'. (Davidson,73). The genre of novel can be classified as sentimental, picaresque, gothic and the novels of nostalgia or reclamation which unifies the spirit of the nation for example James Fenimore Coopers novel The Spy (1821). Sentimental novel or novel of sensibility reflects the sentimentalism of the 18th century which is reflected in sentimental comedy and domestic tragedy. The term Sentimentalism bears two meanings, first the overindulgence in emotion especially for the pleasure that this feeling provides, secondly the optimistic overemphasis on the goodness of humanity (sensibility), signifying in part a reaction against Calvinism, which regarded human nature as depraved. Pamela was the beginning of the style; although Fieldings more realistic Tom Jones was written in protest. There are also examples of 18th century sentimental novel: Oliver Goldsmiths The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), Henry Mackenzies The Man of Feeling (1771), Laurence Sternes Tristram Shandy (1760-67). Sensibility is a term for reliance on feelings as guides to the truth and not on reasoning and law. The term is concerned with primitivism, sentimentalism, the nature movement, and other aspects of romanticism. The high value that the e ighteenth century put on sensibility was a feedback against the stoicism of the 17th century and the theories progressed by Hobbes and others that human beings were inspired primarily by self-interest. Picaresque began in sixteenth century as a counterpoise to the chivalric romance. It includes a gallery of human types drawn from all societal classes. It sorts lower class protagonists who survive by treachery and malleability. Hero is both a swindler and a victim. It also features a encounter between the heros craving to survive and his natural itches to side with truth and goodness. Picaresque novel uses subsidiary characters, like Sancho Panza, who assist the hero. This genre also emphasizes liberty and emission from limits of conservative society and lastly it also features panoramic scenes. The purpose of this genre is that it contains different types of discourse: philosophical reflection, travel essay, political disquisition, it also parodies other traditional literary forms, such as poetry and the romance. It is also suitable for observation on politics of republicanism. Its dimness is its uneven point of views-not a problem in Huck Finn, though. Hugh Henry Brackenridges Mod ern Chivalry (1792-1815), Tabitha Gilman Tenneys Female Quixotism: Exhibited in the Romantic Opinion and Extravagant Adventures of Dorcasina Sheldon (1801), Charlotte Lennoxs The Female Quixote (1752), and Royall Tylers The Algerine Captive (1797) are a few examples of picaresque novels. The conventions of Gothic are mad monks, castles, ruined abbeys-and also superstitions and delusion, hidden corruption and human anxieties, mazelike pathways, haunted minds masked by apparently normal outward lives. Gothic conventions became a form for expressing fears of the conflicting claims of authority and liberty in American society-self-made, self-improved, self-confident men abusing power or undermining the social order. Charles Brockden Browns Wieland (1798), Ormond (1789), and Edgar Huntly (1799) are the examples of Gothic genre. So far as American literature is concerned Captain John Smith is considered to be the first American author due to his work: A True Relation of Such Occurrences and Accidents of Noate as Hath Happened in Virginiaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(1608). This kinds of works are known as the colonial literature. Smiths other works are The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles (1624). Other colonial writers of this manner are Daniel Denton, Thomas Ashe, William Penn, George Percy, William Strachey, Daniel Coxe, Gabriel Thomas, and John Lawson. During 18th century the focus of all the phenomena were shifted from religion to the reasoning with the advent of era of science and inventions. All the happenings were observed with the laws of Physics as were given by Sir Isaac Newton and thus religion and the rules of clergy were demolished. There happened a great shift from the Holy Scriptures towards the human reasoning as to say. This era is known as the Enlightenment of 18th century which strongly impacted the authority of churchmen hence making the way for democratic principles. There also increase in population in the British colonies which helped account for the greater diversity of opinion in religion as well as political life which is seen in the literature of this time. The American post-independence era gave rise to many pieces of writing concerning American State, comprising notes on the State of Virginia by Thomas Jefferson and his many letters solidify his place as one of the most trained early American writers. So far as the first American novels are concerned, they were first published during late 18th and early 19th century. These works of fiction were too lengthy to be printed for pubic reading, but the publishers took the chance to public having hope that they would become steady sellers and hence need to be printed. Among the first American novels are Thomas Attwood Digges Adventures of Alonso, which was published in London in 1775, and William Hill Browns The Power of Sympathy published in 1791. Browns novel shows a tragic love story between siblings who fell in love without knowing that they were related. This epistolary novel is related to the Sentimental novel tradition. During the next decade many novels were published which were written by many female writers. Susanna Rowso is known very well for her novel, Charlotte Temple, which is a tale of seduction and written in third person warning against listening to the voice of passionate love and counsels resistance as well. Another female novelist, Hannah Forster wrote The Coquette: Or, the History of Eliza Wharton which was published in 1797 and it was also an extremely popular novel. This being told from Hannah Forsters point of view and secondly based on the life of Eliza Whitman, this another epistolary novel is concerned with a woman who is seduced and abandoned. Eliza is a coquette who is courted by two very very different men: a clergyman who is offering her the comfort and regularity of domestic life, and a noted and specified libertine. Both novels that is The Coquette and Charlotte are considered to be those novel which speak about the rights of women. In this way these novels can be rendered as the Feminist novels or works of American literature. These novels are also known as the democratic ones as they speak of equal rights of women. The novels are classified under the term as sentimental novels or sentimental genre, characterised by over indulgence in emotion. They are an open invitation to listen to the voice of reasoning against misleading passions and they are also an optimistic over-emphasis about the necessary goodness of humanity. Although these novels were very popular, yet the economic infrastructure of that time did not allow these writers to make their ways living easier. It was in 1809 when an American author, Washington Irving, was able to publish his work entitled A History of New-York from Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty and he became able to support himself from the income generated by his publications. Charles Brockden Brown is another American novelist who published Wieland in 1798, Ormond in 1799 and Edgar Huntlyin in 1799 which were of the Gothic genre. Hugh Henry Brackenridge published Modern Chivalry in 1792 which was of the picaresque genre. Tabitha Gilman Tenney wrote Female Quixotism, Charlotte Lennox wrote The Female Quixote in 1752. Royall Tyler, William Gillmore Simms, Lydia Maria Child, John Neal and Catherine Maira are the porminent figures of American novelists. Puritanism 17th Century: Puritanism is a movement created by extreme Calvinist Protestants who sought to purify religion and society. They believed God would cleanse their feelings through grace eliminating envy, vanity, and lust. Puritans valued plainness in all things including their writing. Of Plymouth Plantation by William Bradford, and speech Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God by Jonathan Edwards Classicism/ The Age of Reason 18th Century: The Age of Enlightenment, or Age of Reason, is an intellectual movement which began in Europe. Writers during this time believed the goals of rational individuals were knowledge, freedom, and happiness. The literary movement which coincided with the Age of Reason was Classicism, based on the study of and adherence to the ancient classic works of Greece and Rome. Classicists valued clarity, order, balance, and reason instead of imagination. They believed nature was like a machine with fixed, unchanging laws. The following works are examples: Poor Richards Almanack -Benjamin Franklin Speech in the Virginia Convention Patrick Henry The Crisis, Number 1 Thomas Paine The Declaration of Independence Thomas Jefferson To the Right Honorable William, Earl of Dartmouth Phillis Wheatly Nationalism in Literature Late 18th Century to Early 19th Century: Nationalism developed from pride, patriotism, and the desire to be distinctly different from the Europeans. American writers tried to write stories and poems unlike European Romantic writers, but they largely failed in their efforts. Rip Van Winkle by Washington Irving and The Deerslayer James Fennimore Cooper Romanticism 19th Century: Romanticism is the movement that rebelled against Classicism in favor of the imagination and emotions. Romantic writers favored intuition over reason and were more concerned with the individual than the whole society. They saw art as an imaginative expression of an individuals essence. Romantics viewed nature as a beautiful mystery, and source of moral and spiritual lessons, not a machine. Many American Romantic writers were also Nationalists who used American history and legends as their subject matter. Rip Van Winkle Washington Irving, The Deerslayer by James Fennimore Cooper, Masque of the Red Death and The Raven by Edgar Allan Poe, Walden by Henry David Thoreau, and Young Goodman Brown by Nathaniel Hawthorne are the exemplary wroks. American Renaissance/ New England Renaissance Mid 19th Century: The American Renaissance is a flourishing of literature dominated by two groups: the Brahmins (based in Cambridge, Massachusetts) and the Transcendentalists (based primarily in Concord, Massachusetts). The Brahmins/Fireside Poets were Longfellow, Lowell, Whittier, and Holmes, Harvard professors who promoted a second attempt at creating a literature which, though based on European models, is distinctly American in character. The Transcendentalists, led by Emerson, were philosophers, social reformers, and writers. The Southerner Poe as well as the Anti-Transcendentalists, Hawthorne and Melville (more Massachusetts residents) are also frequently associated with this movement. Paul Reveres Ride by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, Old Ironsides by Oliver Wendell Holmes, Self-Reliance by Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walden or Life in the Woods by Henry David Thoreau and Young Goodman Brown by Nathaniel Hawthorne are a few works. Transcendentalism 19th Century: American Transcendentalism was created by Emerson who borrowed his ideas from German Transcendentalism and Indian religion to develop a new philosophy. Transcendentalists believe that the basic truths of the universe transcend the physical world and lie beyond the knowledge that can be obtained from the senses. They feel that every individual has the ability to experience God firsthand in his/her intuition. They value nature and believe in the spiritual unity of all life, stating God, humanity, and nature share a universal soul. They feel that nothing in nature is trivial or insignificant; all is symbolic and important. They also promoted the belief that every human being is born inherently good. Self Reliance by Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walden by Henry David Thoreau and Woman in the Nineteenth Century by Margaret Fuller are prominent works. Anti-Transcendentalism 19th Century: Anti-Transcendentalism (like Transcendentalism) is a subsection of Romanticism. Hawthorne and Melville were far less optimistic than Emerson and his fellow philosophers. The Anti-Transcendentalists believed good and evil coexist in the world and that intuition could lead a person to evil just as easily as it could lead to good. The Scarlett Letter, The Birthmark, The Minsters Black Veil by Nathaniel Hawthorne and Moby Dick by Herman Melville are few examples. Local Color and Regionalism Late 19th Century to Early 20th Century: Local color writers identify with a particular place or region of the country. They emphasized distinctive and colorful regional traits (speech patterns and dialects, local customs and folkways, character types, etc.). These writers promoted the objective observation of social facts as well as the sentimental treatment of human emotion and motivation.The White Heron by Sarah Orne Jewett and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain are the major works. Realism Late 19th Century to Early 20th Century: Realism, unlike Romanticism, places less emphasis on the imagination and more on observed fact. These writers viewed the world and human behavior scientifically, mirroring realities without softening or idealizing them. This movement is often considered a rebellion against Romanticism. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain and My Antonia by Willa Cather show realism. Naturalism Late 19th Century to Early 20th Century: Naturalism was a significant offshoot of Realism. Many American authors were influenced by this movement. Naturalism demands that writers penetrate the surface of life and human character. It focuses on inherited traits and environmental conditions (nature and nurture). Naturalism usually explores the negative aspects of society. These authors did not judge their characters morality, but rather viewed them through a social Darwinist lens. Naturalists believed that chance exists but free will is rarely possible. The Red Badge of Courage by Stephen Crane and Of Mice and Men and The Grapes of Wrath by John Steinbeck are few examples of this era. Modernism First half of the 20th Century: Modernism is a self-conscious break from traditional literary forms and subject matter and a search for a distinctly contemporary mode of expression. It was heavily influenced by the horrors and disillusionment of World War One. These writers are also referred to as The Lost Generation. Their writing reflects isolation, alienation, and fragmentation. It places emphasis on individual perception, sensibility, and human consciousness. The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber by Ernest Hemingway and The Crucible by Arthur Miller are the exemplary works. Imagism Early 20th Century: Imagism is a subsection of Modernism that attempted to free poetry from stale conventions and florid language. It emphasized direct concentration on the precise image, the use of precise words and the language of common speech, new rhythms and the use of free verse, as well as complete freedom in the choice of subject.This is Just to Say and The Red Wheelbarrow by William Carlos Williams,The Garden by Ezra Pound and Heat by H. D. (Hilda Doolittle) are the best examples of imagism. Harlem Renaissance Primarily the 1920s: The Harlem Renaissance, also called the New Negro Movement, is a period of outstanding creativity among African American writers. Many of these works were sophisticated explorations of black life and culture that revealed and stimulated a new confidence and racial pride. The following are a few works of literature. The Invisible Man Ralph Ellison Lift Every voice and Sing James Weldon Johnson Their Eyes Were Watching God Zora Neale Jurston Harlem: A Dream Deferred Langston Hughes Southern Renaissance 1930s and 40s: The Southern Renaissance is heavily influenced by traditional Southern humor (stories, sketches, tall tales, and folklore) as well as by the Local Color movement. This time period marked a sudden explosion of excellent Southern writers who emphasized regional speech patterns and dialects, local customs and folkways, as well as character types. The following are a few works of literature. A Worn Path Eudora Welty The Sound and the Fury William Faulkner All the Kings Men Robert Penn Warren Beat Movement The 1950s: Centered in the bohemian or beatnik urban artists communities, the Beat movement defines itself in its alienation from the conventional and its adaptation of the seedy and hip, embracing jazz music, drugs, sex, and Buddhism. The following are a few works of literature. Howl Allen Ginsberg On the Road Jack Kerouac Pluralism 20th century: Pluralism is a movement defined by diversity. During the 20th century American literature was no longer predominantly male, white, and Christian. Men and women of many cultures, races, religions, and ethnic groups began to be published. Many of these authors chose to use the first person point of view rather than the, previously popular, their person. Various voices shared their stories while addressing universal themes. The following are a few works of literature. The Bell Jar Silvia Plath The color Purple Alice Walker The Lone Ranger and Tonto Fistfight in Heaven Sherman Alexie Magical Realism The Second half of the 20th Century: Magical Realism was created in Latin America but it has influenced many writers of the United States as well. This movement juxtaposes the ordinary and the magical, incorporating fantastic elements into otherwise realistic fiction. The following are a few works of literature. Like Water for Chocolate Laura Esquival Beloved and Song of Soloman Toni Morrison Going After Cacciato Tim OBrien The Lovely Bones Alice Sebold Post Modernism The Second half of the 20th Century: Postmodernists believe that there is no single truth, but rather a variety of perspectives none of which is better or worse than another. This movement neither embraces nor resists the conventional. It accepts everything equally. Postmodern works are often eclectic, and anachronistic. Postmodernists make no distinction between high art and popular culture, can blur the boundary between fiction and nonfiction, and often sample other artists work freelyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(very freely). The following are a few works of literature. The Simpsons Matt Groening Fear and Loathing In Las Vegas Hunter S. Thompson Snow Falling on Cedar David Guterson Breakfast of Champions Kurt Vounnegut Whos Afraid of Virginia Woolf Edward Albee The Secret Life of Bees Sue Munk Kidd

J. Edgar Hoover Essay -- essays research papers fc

For nearly half a century J. Edgar Hoover was one of the most powerful officials in the Federal government of the United States. As head of the Federal Bureau of Investigation from 1924 until his death in 1972, he was the nation’s chief law enforcement officer. His intimate knowledge of politicians and government operations made him a man to be feared by elected officials, and none of the eight presidents under whom he served dared fire him. J.Edgar Hoover was born on January 1, 1895, in Washington D.C. He attended George Washington University and earned a degree in 1917. In 1919 he became assistant to Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer in the Department of Justice. It was Palmer who instigated the post World War I "red scare," an anti-Communist hysteria that led to the deportation of many aliens. Hoover was put in charge of the deportations. When Hoover became director of the Bureau in 1924, he quickly formed an elite force of powerful law enforcement officers. He enhanced the FBI’s fame by capturing many gangsters, bank robbers, and other lawbreakers. After World War II he waged a relentless fight against internal subversion. The 1970’s often criticized Hoover for his authoritarian methods. He died in Washington, D.C., on May 2, 1972. In the rest of the paper I will explain more in depth of how J. Edgar Hoover rose to power and why he is considered one of the most corrupt men to ever hold a government position. It is not very difficult to figure out the most outstanding characteristic of J. Edgar Hoover. Out of all of his characteristics, the one that truly stands out is that he was extremely powerful. J. Edgar Hoover is the most famous law enforcement officer that the United States has ever known. J. Edgar Hoover began his adult life at the bottom of the ladder with a very limited amount of power. As he grew older and became more experienced his prestige and power skyrocketed. At the height of his prestige and power he was the most famous director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the history of the United States. One factor that helped J. Edgar Hoover gain more power, was that he had many connections with many important people (Summers 29). Another factor that aided J. Edgar Hoover in his rise to power was the knowledge he had about people (Kessler 449-450). This meant that he could control people, or in other words, blackmai... ...led in public life (Summers 45). If there is a moral here, it is perhaps the one drawn by future Vice President Walter Mondale while taking part in the senate probe of the CIA and FBI in 1975 (Summers 438). "The lesson we learn from this history," he said, "is that we cannot keep our liberty secure by relying alone on the good faith of men with great power" (Summers 438). I think that a very important lesson is taught by the life of J. Edgar Hoover. His life teaches that being powerful is not necessarily a good thing. If power is used intelligently and in moderation, it can be a good thing. However, Hoover used his power for his own benefit. Finally, it got to the point where Hoover would do anything to hold on to his power. That is why he is always shrouded in controversy and his name is synonymous with greed and corruption. Works Cited: Kessler, Ronald. The FBI. New York, NY: Simon and Schuster Inc., 1994. Powers, Richard Gid. Secrecy and Power: The Life of J. Edgar Hoover. New York, NY: Collier Macmillan Canada, Inc., 1987. Summers, Anthony. Official and Confidential: The Secret Life of J. Edgar Hoover. New York, NY: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1993.

Galileo and Newton :: Galileo, Isaac Newton

Galileo believed the physical world to be bounded. He says that all material things have "this or that shape" and are small or large in relation to other things. He also says that material objects are either in motion or at rest, touching or not touching some other body, and are either one in number, or many. The central properties of the material world are mathematical and strengthened through experimentation. Galileo excludes the properties of tastes, odors, colors, and so on when describing the material world. He states that these properties "reside only in the consciousness." These latter properties would cease to exist without the living creature so the mathematically defined properties are the most accurate in describing the material world. Galileo seems to test his beliefs through experimentation and mathematical reasoning. He sites examples in life that support his hypothesis. His argument is of a scientific nature because he is making a hypothesis on a distinctive type of concept. The conclusions that Galileo made relate directly to the work in physics for which he is so well known. His conclusions put emphasis on shapes, numbers, and motion which are all properties that lend themselves to support through "reasoning back and forth between theory and experiment." I feel that Galileo's argument is a valid one because it explains relations in nature and the physical world through mathematical analysis. This allows him to define a world outside of human existence that can be logically calculated and explained. His view describes the world in which living creatures live and not contrasts it to the world within living creatures. The problem with Galileo's view is that it pioneers a scientific outlook but never actually fulfills it. Newton believes the world is ultimately made up of hard particles that can retain different properties. The central properties are solid, massy, impenetrable, and movable particles. He believes God created matter in the beginning in such a way to allow the particles to take on mathematical forms. His approach is a scientific one because he practices the continual interaction of experiment and theory. It is the hard particles that move in such a way that can be assigned certain mathematical principles that clearly explain the interaction of bodies. Newton's conclusion seems to be a strong one because it deals with the world being made up of particles and shows how these particles act with each other in a way that can be explained scientifically. I like the idea of organized flow in the world and God being the creator of it all. The mathematical/scientific approach offers explanation to how the particles are

International Relations: Important Theories

Realism makes four basic assumptions about international relations: * The state is the most important actor in international relations. This means that national governments are the most important player in the game of international politics–interest groups like Amnesty International or individual figures like the pope have no effect on how nations relate to one another. * The state is a unitary and rational actor. Unitary means that â€Å"the state speaks with one voice;† although members of a nation may have many different views on the best approach to a situation, only one approach will be enacted. Rational means that the state is capable of â€Å"identifying goals and preferences and determining their relative importance. † * International relations are essential conflictual because of anarchy. In this case, anarchy does not mean chaos–instead it refers to the absence of a higher authority to prevent aggression or arbitrate disputes. Just as men might run amok and attack one another without the government to punish them, nations will attack one another so long as they believe it in their best interest. Anarchy also compels states to arm themseves in order to feel secure. The stockpiling of arms and the building of a military, however, are provocative actions which prompt neighbouring states to feel insecure and build up their own weapons. * Security and strategic issues, known as high politics, dominate the international agenda. This means that states' paramount goal is to maximize their power in the international community, and that they are primarily concerned with military power. An example of a nation operating according to this maxim is North Korea in the early 90s–the downfall of the Soviet Union left them without Communist allies, so they began a nuclear weapons development program and threw out UN observers. They believed that if their government gained nuclear power, it would survive in the international community because other countries would fear them. Liberalism * Liberal international relations theories are based on the idea that humans are PERFECTABLE. In contrast to the greedy man of realism or even he survival man of realism, liberal theories tend to see man as rational as well as learning, striving, and improving over time. Liberals believe in PROGRESS. * Liberals believe that humans can learn to COOPERATE to improve their lives PEACE is seen as a preferred condition and therefore ways should be found to foster peace among states. This allows man to focus on the substantive things that make up the good life: food, art, culture, literature, farming, families. Everything but weapons and the fighting of war. Liberals believe that war stems from INADEQUATE INSTITUTIONS OR MISUNDERSTANDINGS, so we prevent war by crafting better institutions and eliminating the possibility of misunderstanding through education and discussion. * War stems from misery, POVERTY, INEQUALITY. * Liberal approaches often also see man as tied to fellow man by a COMMON HUMANITY. Therefore, the limits imposed by state boundaries are artificial. This leads to ideas such as the pursuit of human rights violators across state boundaries, seeking to engage in development assistance. League of Nations and UN Charters have strains of this type of liberal idealism: making peaceful settlement of disputes a new norm. Overcome past international conflict through institutionalized collective security mechanisms. * Some influential liberal ideas today: INTERDEPENDENCE and the rise of NON-STATE ACTORS. * Interdependence: Economic linkages, communication technologies finally making possible one world with one common humanity. All linked together, can’t go to war without causing hardship to all. This has been developed further in the 1990s to a school of thought which sees globalization as rendering war among major powers as impossible, would impoverish everyone, no one has an incentive to rock the globalization boat. * Rise of non-state actors: new non-state actors becoming more influential than the old states of realist international relations discourse: multinational companies many of which have greater annual turnover than developing countries’ GDPs, new cross-national issue groups: the Greens, Greenpeace, Amnesty International. These corporations and organizations are breaking down the state, establishing common interests across borders. Generally, foster peace. * Also, recently re-in vogue in the liberal camp is the DEMOCRATIC PEACE THESIS, the idea that democracies do not fight one another. * Liberal approaches have fostered much of the growth of INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS (neo-liberalism with emphasis on institutions). International organizations are seen as ways of mediating conflict among states, establishing bases of cooperation, establishing rational-legalistic codes of conduct under which all will be better off. Some liberal internationalists see the evolution of international organizations, the development of international law, the growth of cross-national civil society groups as evidence that the state is being transgressed, or at least having its capacity for war-generating action reduced. * ANALOGY TO DOMESTIC STATE at international level. As in the domestic state where the government provides some order to relations among citizens, so international organizations (while not a world government) can provide some stability, security, and predictability to inter-state interactions. Can prevent states from being trapped in the SECURITY DILEMMA (need force to protect self, arms build up scares others into thinking you are going to attack, they build up their forces, they scare you, endless cycle of build-up ultimately leading to violence. By making self more secure through arms, make self less secure by compelling arms acquisition on neighbour/rival), can foster and build on areas where cooperation helpful to solve mutual interests, cooperation reinforcing. States can learn through international organizations/cooperation and change their preferences and behaviors. * IRAQ WAR: Liberals would certainly see Saddam Hussein as a problem: authoritarian, had shown proclivity to invade others. Marxism Marxism is one of the basic theories of international relations. According to Marxists, both realism and liberalism/idealism are simply self-serving ideologies introduced by the economic elites to defend and justify global inequality. Instead, Marxists argue, class is the fundamental unit of analysis of international relations, and the international system has been constructed by the upper classes and the wealthiest nations in order to protect and defend their interests. The various Marxist theories of international relations agree that the international state system was constructed by capitalists and therefore serves the interests of wealthy states and corporations, which seek to protect and expand their wealth. According to Marxist theory the â€Å"First World† and â€Å"Third World† are merely components of a larger world system which originated in 16th-century European colonialism. Instead, these states actually make up the â€Å"core† and â€Å"periphery† of the world system — respectively, the central wealthy states which own and chiefly benefit from the mechanisms of production, and the impoverished â€Å"developing† countries which supply most of the human labour and natural resources exploited by the rich. States which do not fit either class, but lie somewhere in the middle of the model, are referred to as â€Å"semi-peripheral. † The core-periphery thesis of world-systems theory is based upon another body of work, dependency theory, which argues that the basis of international politics is the transfer of natural resources from peripheral developing countries to core wealthy states, mostly the Western industrialized democracies. The poor countries of the world, like the poor classes of the world, are said to provide inexpensive human and natural capital, while the wealthy countries' foreign policies are devoted to creating and maintaining this system of inequality. International economic law (such as the World Trade Organization) and other such systems are seen as means by which this is done. To combat these systems of inequality, traditional Marxists and dependency theorists have argued that poor countries should adopt economic control policies that can break them out of the prison of international economic controls, such as import substitution (government assistance to domestic producers and barriers to wealthy international corporations attempting to flood the market with mass-produced imports) rather than the export-based models usually favoured by international economic organizations such as the World Bank and International Monetary Fund.